Giuseppe Martinico
Democratic Constitution Making Between Deliberative and Crowd-Sourced Forms of Constitutionalism: A Report
A series of online seminars was held from 8 to 19 May 2023 devoted to “Democratic Constitution Making between deliberative and crowd-sourced forms of constitutionalism”. The series was organised within the frame of the Sant’Anna Legal Studies (STALS) project. STALS is a project made possible thanks to the financial support offered by Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, issued within the framework of the School’s internationalisation policy.
The webinar series explored the processes of democratic constitution-making from a comparative law viewpoint. It offered an in-depth and up-to-date analysis of direct and representative participation mechanisms in constitution-making processes from a comparative law perspective. The series combined webinars on both general topics and specific cases of constitution-making processes, exploring some significant and recent experiences. Thus, alongside more general sessions, there were meetings devoted to specific case studies with academic experts coming from different jurisdictions.
The first webinar was given by Antoni Abat i Ninet, who presented his book Constitutional Crowdsourcing. Democratising Original and Derived Constituent Power in the Network Society.
On that occasion, he conceptualised the phenomenon of constitutional crowdsourcing, dealing with the issue of how to include the people and give them a voice in the constitution-making process and in constitutional interpretation, by favouring in this way the exercise of what he called both original and derived constituent power. Antoni Abat i Ninet gave an original and out-of-the-box view of popular participation in consultative and constituent processes. He provided a critical approach to the issue and some interesting suggestions also concerning the use of new technologies.
In the second webinar, Sergio Verdugo addressed the main features of the failed (for now) Chilean constituent process, analysing its characteristics, the reasons that led to the rejection of the text and the start of its new phase, also in the light of the recent surprising electoral results (in some ways) for the constituent assembly (“consejo constitutional”). His analysis addressed both constitutional and politological arguments. The interdisciplinary approach employed was very beneficial for participants to understand the complex dimension of the Chilean constituent process.
Veronica Federico took an in-depth look at the South African constitution-making process in the third webinar. As is well known, South Africa represented a model for comparative constitutional law of how to proceduralise the constitution-making process, characterised by an interim constitution codifying certain structural principles that inspired the contents of the final constitution. While, of course, the South African process cannot be described as an example of crowdsourced constitutionalism, it certainly represented a model of a negotiated and open constitution-making process, which helped to rationalise the idea of constituent power as known by authors such as Schmitt. Veronica Federico's analysis, like that of Sergio Verdugo, was not limited to a mere overview of the South African constitution-making process, but covered the deep ideological and political drivers that led to the enactment of the post-apartheid Constitution.
In the fourth webinar, Paul Blokker presented a volume he edited entitled “Imagining Europe Transnational Contestation and Civic Populism”. On that occasion he focused on protest movements (both left-wing and right-wing populist movements) and on those forms of resistance that tried to challenge the existing supranational crisis policies. He also offered a critical account of the works of the Conference for the future of Europe and explored the role of societal participation in the evolution of the European integration process. Incredibly fascinating about this latter aspect was the focus on imagination as a driver in the EU integration process.
Massimo Fichera presented his works on discursive constituent power in light of the inter-generational justice issue during the fourth webinar. Massimo Fichera's talk started with a historical-philosophical analysis of the idea of intergenerational justice, which ranged from traditional Western constitutionalism scholars through the investigation of some constitutional cases and documents. The analysis of the current “status” of intergenerational justice was enriched by drawing on Habermas' and Rawl's critical insights. In his view, the idea of “people” can indeed be constructed through the discursive practices, which play “an important role in the context of informal change”.
Catherine Dupré presented her co-edited book “Icelandic Constitutional Reform: People, Processes, Politics” in which she analysed the well-known Icelandic crowdsourced constitutional reform attempt. While Iceland has been seen as a reference mark in this ambit, she actually provided a pretty critical and in-depth analysis of the process, by debunking many of the myths surrounding the process. In particular, Catherine Dupré emphasised the tensions that arose in the constitution-making process, namely The Parliament v. the people and the people v. the experts.
Francesco Palermo offered a ground-breaking analysis of the tricky relationship between territorial conflicts and constitutionalism, by focusing on the issue of independence and secession referendums. Francesco Palermo's talk pivoted on the disadvantages and advantages of proceduralising territorial conflicts and, in particular, of regulating secessionist processes. The analysis focused specifically on the instrument of the referendum as a way to “change” the constitutionally established territorial structure and to involve the population in this kind of process.
Finally, Francesco Biagi carefully dealt with the relationship between constituent processes and populism in light of the Tunisian case. He compared the former Tunisian constitution, which had been approved after the Arab Spring, with the new constitution recently entered into force, which sadly represents the outcome of an evident constitutional retrogression pushed by the current President of the Tunisian Republic, a constitutional law professor who had guided the country through an evident step back in terms of fundamental rights.
All seminars can be accessed at the following YouTube link.
6 Luglio 2023
Yves Mény Democrazia: l'eredità politica greca. Miti Potere Istituzioni, Ariele, Milano, 2022
L’ultimo libro di Yves Mény è un invito a riscoprire quel serbatoio politico che è la tradizione greca e a beneficiarne. Nelle parole dell’Autore il lavoro si presenta come una “lettura delle rappresentazioni (mitiche, artistiche, letterarie, politiche) e delle istituzioni fino al loro impatto attuale, avvalendosi del diritto che ogni generazione ha di leggere con i suoi occhi e gli interrogativi del suo tempo i testi immortali ricevuti in eredità” (p. 36). In effetti, se dovessi descrivere quest’Opera direi che si tratta di un lemmario di mitologia politica; “mito”, infatti, è una delle parole chiave del volume, un volume che ci offre un’analisi puntuale di una serie di categorie e concetti che sono parte dell’eredità della tradizione politica dell’antica Grecia.
Come ricorda Mény “[L]a mitologia greca ci rinvia a un’umanità al tempo stesso sublimata, esacerbata, spinta ai limiti estremi delle sue possibilità. Ogni personaggio dei miti incarna una passione umana. Alcune fanno parte della sfera dell’intimità o delle semplici relazioni umane. Ma molte stanno al cuore stesso della politica” (p. 31).
Il libro è strutturato in ventidue voci distribuite in tre capitoli dedicati, rispettivamente, all’“uomo nella città”, a “potere e dominazione” e, infine, alle “istituzioni”. Ai capitoli appena citati si aggiungono un’introduzione e una sezione conclusiva.
Non si tratta di un lavoro, per così dire, “nostalgico”, dato che ogni riferimento al passato viene filtrato attraverso un sapiente lavoro critico e di contestualizzazione, nella consapevolezza della natura complessa dei fenomeni analizzati.
Del resto, l’immagine dell’antica Grecia che Mény propone è tutt’altro che idealizzata; al contrario, vengono evidenziate anche le pecche e le degenerazioni che la caratterizzarono. Si tratta, del resto, di un universo tutt’altro che omogeneo, frammentato in visioni diverse del mondo. Del resto, scriveva Camus che “les mythes n'ont pas de vie par eux-mêmes. Ils attendent que nous les incarnions” (A. Camus, Prométhée aux enfers in L’Été, Gallimard, Parigi, 1954) e questo libro ce lo ricorda. Particolarmente emblematica di tale eterogeneità è l’impressione che suscita il corpo di voci del primo capitolo, in cui spicca il lemma “cittadino”, da cui emergono le differenze fra Sparta e Atene, descritte come “modelli alternativi delle possibili scelte politiche” (p. 88). Il secondo capitolo procede – in gran parte, almeno - per coppie concettuali (“sorvegliare e punire”, “l’astuzia e la forza”, “recinti e labirinti”), mentre il terzo capitolo permette all’Autore di cimentarsi con i temi della sua produzione scientifica di lungo corso - basti pensare alle voci “democrazia” e “buon governo”. Gli ultimi due lemmi richiamano poi un altro ambito di ricerca a cui Mény ha contribuito moltissimo: gli studi europei. Si tratta delle due voci “ermafroditismo (istituzionale)” (che richiama la nota immagine usata da Amato), ed “Europa”. In entrambe emergono la particolarità genetica e strutturale dell’Unione europea e il suo carattere incompiuto, nonostante le innovazioni introdotte dal Trattato di Lisbona; novità che non sono riuscite, però, a plasmare una vera solidarietà transnazionale.
In generale, ogni voce è un itinerario a sé, ricco di spunti e con bivi ideali che permettono al lettore di intuire la mole di studi necessaria per scrivere un libro come questo. Si tratta di un’Opera, quindi, che ci invita a fare i conti, senza retorica, con il mondo dei classici. La metafora del viaggio torna in più punti: per esempio quando l’Autore, nella ricca introduzione, parla delle “vie della seduzione greca” o, ancora, nell’ultima pagina del libro, dove si ricorda che “la mitologia ci offre uno specchio incantato, non ci dà alcuna garanzia; ma almeno ci offre le eterne lezioni per guidare il viaggiatore” (p. 238).
“Seduzione” è, con “fascinazione”, la parola con cui si descrive l’attrazione che il nostro mondo prova per quello richiamato da Mény. Del resto, la Grecia antica è letteralmente “la fonte indiscussa dei mille ruscelli attraverso cui la democrazia contemporanea si è costituita nel tempo” (p.34). Ma perché siamo attratti ancora da questo mondo, nonostante esso non abbia forse mai conosciuto le forme che siamo soliti attribuirgli? Le ragioni sono ovviamente molteplici, ma una di esse è il suo spingerci a superare le false dicotomie che spesso incontriamo nella realtà attuale, così polarizzata, che si alimenta di fratture e divisioni e che ne produce continuamente di nuove. Leggere questo volume è essenziale per scoprire, ad esempio, i molteplici significati assunti dall’idea di “democrazia, anch’essa così polimorfa, mutevole e variabile” (p. 34). Scavando nella tradizione greca si ha conferma, per esempio, della natura elitaria della democrazia di Platone e Aristotele, del loro scetticismo verso la democrazia “pura”, elementi che rappresentano un potente antidoto ai veleni della democrazia radicale talvolta propugnata anche ai nostri giorni, una democrazia che non conosce il senso del limite suggerito da quel “metodo prudenziale” (M. Loughlin, The Idea of Public Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004) che è il costituzionalismo. Non è un caso che talvolta costituzionalismo e democrazia siano stati letti in chiave antitetica da una certa letteratura, un esempio per tutti è quello rappresentato dal libro di Negri sul potere costituente, secondo cui “il costituzionalismo è la negazione della democrazia” (Il potere costituente. Saggio sulle alternative del moderno, Manifestolibri, Roma, 2002), perché finisce per creare catene e imbrigliare la sovranità popolare. Se politologi e giuristi sono in genere abituati a descrivere contesti in cui democrazia e costituzionalismo si alimentano a vicenda - perché la democrazia è anche protezione delle minoranze e rispetto dello Stato di diritto - per i populisti, invece, vi è un’insanabile tensione fra questi due ideali. In questo le costituzioni vengono spesso viste dai populisti come irragionevoli gabbie, vere e proprie camicie di forza.
Naturalmente – visti i fondamentali studi dell’Autore in questo campo - non mancano dei passaggi dedicati al populismo, le cui rivendicazioni “semplicistiche” hanno “tuttavia il merito di mettere in luce le derive e i falsi pretesti dei sistemi democratici e la difficoltà per gli elettori di far passare i loro messaggi, le loro rivendicazioni e le loro proteste” (p. 194).
In conclusione, leggendo questo importante libro si ha conferma del fatto che non esiste “la democrazia senza aggettivi”. Troppo ambigua è la storia di questo concetto, come ha ricordato fra gli altri Salvadori enfatizzandone “i molti volti” (M. Salvadori, Democrazia. Storia di un’idea tra mito e realtà, Donzelli, Roma, 2016). In effetti, la grandezza del dibattito che stiamo riscoprendo in questa fase cruciale consiste, come hanno scritto Ginsburg e Huq, nel rendersi conto del fatto che “an effort to understand democratic decline must start with a threshold question that is more difficult than first appears: What, precisely, do we mean by democracy?” (T. Ginsburg, A.Z. Huq, How to Save a Constitutional Democracy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2018).
2 Maggio 2022
Online Symposium: The Rule of Law and Judicial Independence in EuropeThe Constitutional Function Performed by the European Convention of Human Rights
As President Spano argued in his article, the Rule of Law is the lodestar of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR). In this post, I shall try to stretch the argument a bit further by noting that the ECHR also participates in the function historically performed by constitutionalism, namely that of limiting and shaping political power, in particular State power. In doing so the ECHR has been a successful experience and because of that its activity has become the target of national resistance, especially in populist times.
In order to develop this point, it is first necessary to clarify the relationship between the Rule of Law and constitutionalism. As the Canadian Supreme Court argued in its famous Reference Re Secession of Quebec (paragraph 70), constitutionalism and the Rule of Law present similarities, but they are not identical, in the sense that constitutionalism brings the claims of the Rule of Law to a further level, linking these claims to the necessary compliance with a higher law. In this respect, one could say that the ECHR gives added value to domestic constitutionalism.
For example, in some countries, the ECHR has been treated as a shadow constitution (Austria) and used by domestic constitutional courts to enrich the national yardstick employed to review domestic laws. In other countries (the Netherlands) where there is no proper judicial review of legislation, national courts have benefited from constitutional openness, and used international treaties, including the ECHR, to remedy this situation. Comparative research shows that in other countries the ECHR has acquired at least a super-legislative status.
This super-legislative status of the ECHR has produced reactions at the national level and this is inevitably the price of the success that this international instrument has had over the years and consequently of its invasiveness in domestic boundaries. As Justice Gallo, former President of the Italian Constitutional Court wrote in a text prepared for a meeting in Brussels held on 24 May 2012, recently, the exchange of views between the Italian Constitutional Court and the Strasbourg Court has become more and more frequent. In principle, the ECHR gives added value to the protection of fundamental rights in Europe. However, as Justice Gallo pointed out: ‘the work of transposition of the case-law of the ECtHR into the national legal order has not been easy’. One could see the Italian case as particular in light of the uncertain position accorded to the ECHR (super-legislative but also sub-constitutional) but even in other jurisdictions the situation is pretty similar. Even in legal orders lacking a fully-fledged constitutional text, like the UK, judges have limited the openness granted to the ECHR, which cases such as Horncastle confirm.
Over recent years the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has been under attack and forms of judicial and political resistance have emerged. There might be different explanations for that: some of them are long-standing issues that have already been explored in depth by scholars. In other cases, instead, they are also due to the recent waves of populism and sovereignism that have spread around Europe. In some cases, even the international commitments stipulated by national states have been subject to referendums, and this explains why not only national but also supranational courts have been targets of populist attacks. The recent ‘Swiss law first’ initiative is a good example of this, in a system where the ECHR and the ECtHR play a fundamental role in giving national judges the possibility of carrying out judicial review of federal legislation, compensating in this way the immunity of federal laws from the judicial control of compatibility with the local Constitution. Finally, there are also episodes of non-execution and judicial disobedience that seem to have more specific reasons due to the circumstances or the factual background of the case. There are also cases of judicial disagreements that can perform a systemic function by inducing the Strasbourg Court to adjust its case law. This is the case in my view, of the Hutchinson saga, in which the ECtHR came back to its Vinter decision, producing what was called a ‘counter-revolution’: ‘In the circumstances of this case where, following the Grand Chamber’s judgment in which it expressed doubts about the clarity of domestic law, the national court has specifically addressed those doubts and set out an unequivocal statement of the legal position, the Court must accept the national court’s interpretation of domestic law” (paragraph 25, emphasis added). Even more clearly, the Grand Chamber in the 2017 Hutchison case stated:
“In the McLoughlin decision the Court of Appeal responded explicitly to the Vinter critique. It affirmed the statutory duty of the Secretary of State to exercise the power of release compatibly with Article 3 of the Convention […] The Court considers that the Court of Appeal has brought clarity as to the content of the relevant domestic law, resolving the discrepancy identified in the Vinter judgment” (paragraph 39).
For the sake of clarity, my main point is not to do with the consistency of this line of cases from a substantial point of view or with the destiny of the ‘right to hope’ after Hutchinson. As scholars immediately pointed out, there are ambiguities both in the decision of the Court of Appeal (for instance, it appears difficult to deny the uncertainty surrounding the term ‘exceptional circumstances’) and in the decisions of the ECtHR. Nevertheless, Hutchinson is interesting from the methodology of dialogue, being a good example of how national and European courts may exchange arguments, even correcting the interlocutor if the decision of the ECtHR is based on what is perceived as a questionable understanding of what national law says. By expressing disagreement, national judges may influence the evolution of the case law of the Strasbourg Court. However, there are also cases in which the disagreement stemming from national courts cannot be read in such a benign manner. Famous examples come from Russia, where the local Parliament adopted a new law allowing the Constitutional Court to declare the impossibility to enforce the decisions of the ECtHR if they breach the national Constitution. Scholars have commented upon the follow up of the Russian Constitutional Court to the Yukos decision, describing the Russian case as an example of ‘hostile criticism’ or ‘unprincipled disobedience’.
However, all the forms of disobedience are a direct consequence of the success of the ECHR and of the progressive involvement of national judges in the life and enforcement of this instrument (the idea of subsidiarity which has been codified in Protocol 15 to the ECHR), and are in a way the price of the success of the ECHR, which is more and more often conceived as a pressing and important source of obligations even by the domestic actors and institutions.
National courts may play a fundamental function in enabling domestic constitutionalism to be enriched by the ECHR, and indeed the ECtHR needs allies. In this respect, a potential turning point might be represented by Protocol No. 16. Protocol No. 16 could help the European Court in explaining that the ECHR enriches the protection of constitutional rights and that the ECtHR is not a threat to sovereignty. Diritti Comparati has contributed to the Italian debate about the advantages offered by Protocol No. 16. Unfortunately, in Italy, the non-ratification thesis has also been supported by sovereignist arguments.
In some countries, in order to face populist attacks, constitutional courts have been trying to better explain their mission to citizens, to reach out to people, so to speak, by investing heavily in a communication strategy (members of Constitutional courts record podcasts, they give interviews to newspapers, they participate in cultural (non-academic) events). This has triggered a huge debate about the pros and cons of this choice. Are courts equipped to do that? Is this useful?
The risk of trespassing is always present, but perhaps it is better for courts (especially top courts) to explain their role rather than letting the courts - and their counter-majoritarian function necessary to preserve democracies - be exploited by the populist narrative.
Some years ago, in one of his famous separate opinions, Judge Paulo Pinto de Albuquerque referred to a ‘spirit of the age’, an age that experiences ‘strong headwinds against the Court’ particularly following the emergence of new populist movements and extremist parties:
‘One major commonality among these parties and movements is their unprecedented barrage of bellicose verbiage against the Court, based on flawed, inaccurate and easily debunked misinformation. Such abject attitude speaks volumes about the social and political values of these parties and movements and their lack of commitment to the European culture of human rights. In recent years the resentment against the Court has reached a new, alarming pitch, stoking sectarian rage against the Convention system itself. The rhetoric of the Convention as a “villain’s charter”, which protects the terrorists, the paedophiles and all sorts of criminals against the innocent majority, or the abusive, lazy migrants against the hard-working Mr Smith, or the privileged minorities against the underprivileged, common man on the street, echoes the whipped-up fear of the outsider – of that which is foreign or different.’
The article written by President Spano offers an outstanding contribution to the debate about the role and the impact of the Strasbourg Court on civil society and helps in clarifying why its mission enriches the protection of fundamental rights. In this, the ECtHR is a powerful antidote to the new wave of populism (either authoritarian or not) and a fundamental piece in the supranational constitutional mosaic as it helps in offering a further instrument of rationalisation of political power in a phase in which ‘the intrinsically counter-majoritarian nature of human rights is forgotten by legislators, courts and other domestic public authorities’.
22 Aprile 2021
The Devil Is in the Details. Five Points on the EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI)
On the 30th of December 2020, the European Commission announced its agreement in principle on the EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI), after nearly seven years of negotiations.
The CAI is a very ambiguous agreement, or rather, it is an agreement with some details that need to be clarified. For example, some days ago the European Commission published the annexes containing the parties' market access commitments (i.e., the sectors in which the EU and China agreed to limit quantitative restrictions or joint venture requirements) and their lists of present and future non-conforming measures (e.g., on national treatment). These annexes are helpful to understand the agreement a little better, although many details require further clarification.
Commentators in the blogosphere have already analysed the text of the agreement, and in this post, I am not going to offer an in-depth analysis of the CAI. Instead, I will make five general comments.
My first point regards the nature of the agreement. The CAI is not a revolutionary text (with some exceptions, for example, in the field of technology transfer). For the most part, it seems to reiterate and consolidate some of the parties' existing commitments under the World Trade Organization (WTO). It also overlaps with other strategies undertaken by China at an international level, such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Think, for instance, of the transport sector, which is recalled by the CAI and is crucial in the BRI. In this sense, the CAI should be read in conjunction with other initiatives undertaken by China since it is part of a strategy aimed at reshaping the international legal order. It is probable the agreement was announced to pursue what has been called the strategic autonomy of the EU (whatever this formula really means), and it can be argued that it is a response to the so-called "phase one” trade agreement conceived under the Trump presidency and signed in January 2020.
My second point looks at Art. 14 of Section VI: "Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed as conferring rights or imposing obligations that may be directly invoked before the Parties' courts or tribunals".
This resembles the text of other EU agreements, for instance, the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) with Canada, which denies direct effect and limits private party enforcement before courts. Elaine Fahey criticised the CETA arguing that "this state of affairs creates a highly undesirable enforcement gap". I agree with this view and this is a criticism somewhat independent of the ambiguity of Opinion 1/17, in which the Court of Justice of the EU said that the CETA (rectius, its Section F of Chapter Eight) is compatible with the EU Treaties.
The third point has to do with the elephant in the room, namely human rights. One could argue that an agreement like this could end up legitimising China’s human rights record, in spite of the EU's commitment to respect the values of Art. 2 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). These are strong value-based concerns regarding the CAI, but what can we say about that? There are obviously differences between China and the EU that cannot be reconciled, despite the "common" terms often used in international fora. Think, for instance, of the words used by H.E. Wang Yi, the Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China, at the High-level Segment of the 46th Session of the United Nations Human Rights Council last February, when he referred to a "human rights philosophy" that barely relates to the Western understanding of the concept of human rights as the recent exchange on sanctions on Xinjiang abuses confirms. Similar differences can be found with concepts such as the rule of law, which also entered the text of the Chinese constitution (Art. 5). Clearly, the Chinese concept of the rule of law is different from the European one, which is, in turn, distinguishable according to the European constitutional traditions taken into account (the German, British, French or Italian ones, for instance). I use here the linguistic concept of "false friends" to refer to similar words which actually mean completely different things. As a counter-argument, it was said that through this agreement, the EU could induce China to guarantee higher protection standards by "adding pressure on China to comply with International Labour Organisation (ILO) Conventions." In this respect, it is worth recalling the European Commission’s recent activism, which, before a panel of experts established under the EU-Korea FTA, successfully challenged certain Korean measures restricting workers’ rights to join a union. Should we aspect more of this activism under the CAI? However, while the EU thinks it can convince China to converge on its own values, China thinks the same, and this could lead to a never-ending tug-of-war.
My fourth point relates to the international strategy pursued by China. It has been argued that the CAI "showcases its increasing desire to shape multilateralism, rather than merely be shaped by it." This agreement is part of a trend in which China would be moving from a paradigm of "selective engagement" (or "selective adaptation") to a paradigm of "selective reshaping." What is the difference between these two concepts? Heng Wang writes that "Selective adaptation is concerned with the 'downloading' of external norms, in the form of ‘rules, structures, processes, and practices.’ Selective reshaping is the ‘uploading’ of China-led institutions and China-preferred rules at the extra-regional level.”
Henry Gao, in this sense, writes of a shift from a situation in which China was a rule-taker to a context in which China can be described as a rule-maker, or even perhaps a rule shaker. In so doing, China would also contribute to questioning the existing international economic legal order, which is frequently depicted as characterised by American dominance and liberal internationalism.
But how can China develop this strategy? This leads to my fifth point.
The CAI does not exclude the possibility of Memoranda of Understanding (MoU). Indeed, there are many MoU in this area. For instance, the Switzerland - China free trade agreement refers to an MoU that states cooperative activities may take place through dialogue, joint studies, and capacity building. MoU are soft law instruments, and they are frequently employed by China since they guarantee flexibility, a key ingredient of its approach to the international community; think of its use within the BRI. There are also existing MoU between the EU and China, for instance, the MoU on “establishing a Connectivity Platform between the EU and China”. In theory, since many details in the CAI need to be clarified, this agreement could cover the contents of these MoU, but something will remain out of that and this confirms the margin for flexibility. After all, soft law concerns “measures which are not legally binding but which nevertheless have practical and even legal effects” as Francis Snyder puts it.
As scholars have argued, soft law is a very general term that has been used to refer to a variety of processes. Frequently, soft law is identified as opposed to hard law since these forms of law would respond to antithetical dynamics: “rigid versus flexible approach to implementation”; “presence versus absence of sanctions”; “material versus procedural regulation”.
However, soft law and hard law should be seen as complementary (Shaffer, Pollack 2010). Among the advantages of soft law, one can mention “lower contracting costs”, “lower sovereignty costs”, “simplicity and speed”, and “participation and incrementalism”. In international law, soft law is frequently employed since ‘soft legalisation is much easier to achieve. A recent proliferation of soft law instruments can be found in the creation, enforcement, oversight, and regulation of: counterterrorism measures, financial regulation, and international taxation law.
Of course, concerns over transparency and ambiguity remain, but my point is that soft law is not bad or weak per se. Indeed, soft law is, above all, a multi-functional device or, better, it refers to a jungle of measures and acts that may have legal relevance depending on the context in which they are employed. In a strong integrated system like that of the EU, soft law has acquired an interesting role even before courts. On the contrary, in the Canadian case, soft law has been employed to galvanise political mediation and consensus, avoiding the involvement of judges.
Comparative law shows that soft law can have an added value in favouring the coexistence of different cultures and thus pluralism. In the Chinese approach to international law, soft law is frequently coupled with flexibility, and I also think that in light of the CAI’s ambiguity, it can continue to play a prominent role.
1 Aprile 2021
Who is the Master of the Treaties? The Compact Theory in Karlsruhe
1.The European Treaties: a “Compact”?
We are still trying to understand the implications of the shocking decision by the German Constitutional Court (BVG) on the Public Sector Purchase Programme (PSPP) and its impact on the future of the EU integration process. This post will not analyse the content of the decision. Rather, it will argue that this judgment and other recent critical events understand the integration process in light of something resembling the “Compact Theory” approach, which is very similar to that devised by Calhoun and other scholars in the American pre-Civil War scenario. Indeed, the conclusion reached by the German Court and the application of the ultra vires doctrine, with the nullification effects, reminds us of what Boom wrote about Germany as the Virginia of Europe in 1995.
Does it mean that the Compact Theory is back? Can we use it to understand the current state of affairs in the European integration process? The European Union is suffering from a complex crisis, especially after Brexit. Indeed, scholars have already compared secession and withdrawal, while others have tried to distinguish between secession and withdrawal because of the unilateral nature of the latter. However, this distinction does not take into account that both the Canadian Supreme Court in its landmarking 1998 Reference Re Secession of Quebec and Calhoun, one of the champions of the Compact Theory in the US, defined secession as a form of withdrawal.
In Calhoun’s view the American Constitution was a compact between the sovereign States. He found confirmation of this reading in Art. VII of the Constitution according to which: “The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same”. “Between” gives the idea of a compact: In Calhoun’s words:
Against this background States were the real sovereign. In order to explain his view he made a distinction between government and sovereignty:
This meant that States were the masters of the compact, and the Union was a mere agent. The shift from the Confederation to the Federation had not changed the substance of the compact in his view.
States had rights and according to the Compact Theory there were three main rights: interposition, nullification and secession. Interposition and nullification were the terms used in the so-called “Principles of ‘98” and refer to the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. “Interpose” was the term employed in the Virginia Resolution – whose mastermind was Madison – in case of ultra vires acts of the federal government. “Nullification”, instead, was the word employed in the Kentucky Resolution of 1799, inspired by Jefferson.
While nullification seemed to refer to a unilateral right of the State, interposition would be a right that States can exercise only collectively.
Nullification in particular is used when the State level perceives as illegitimate an act of the federal level, because it violates the core constitutional principles and the identity of the State.
It is more than an expression of disagreement – which is indeed a constitutive part of any multi-tier legal system; nullification here is understood as the ultimate reaction – before secession – against an illegitimate exercise of power, impinging on the State sovereignty. After being considered a historical device of the State resistance vis a vis the development of the federal power, nullification has started to be regarded as a still functioning tool, even though in new forms – like disobedience – that can be labelled “neo-nullification”.
2.Neo-Nullification and the European integration process
Why is neo-nullification relevant to understanding the current state of affairs in the European integration process? Indeed, the EU is experiencing several crises, which are typically “federal” in their essence.
After the case of Brexit – which put at stake one of the core State’s rights according to the Compact Theory, the right of secession – now the decision of the BVerfG on the PSPP offers us a new interesting case, through the use of nullification, to test the Compact Theory in the EU.
The German Court exercises the nullification option since the CJEU in Weiss “affords the ECB the competence to pursue its own economic policy agenda” and “refrains from subjecting the ECB’s action to an effective review as to conformity with the order of competences on the basis of the principle of proportionality” (para.163). In not taking seriously the assessment of the ECB programme the CJEU, in the eyes of Karlsruhe, exceeded its judicial mandate and the Weiss ruling is not a binding force in Germany.
From a broader diachronic perspective, the nullification exercised by the BVerfG in the PSPP case is the outcome of a jurisprudence in which the Court has built a kind of “German Compact Theory”, starting from the Maastricht Urteil, where the BVerfG clearly emphasised the nature of the compact of the EU, which is “an association of sovereign states with a view to achieving an increasingly close union between the peoples of Europe – which are organized as sovereign nation states”. The EU is thus considered an association with limited powers, conferred by the sovereign States. This conception posed the grounds for the nullification power of the BVerfG: “if European bodies or organs were to implement or add to the Union Treaty beyond the scope of the treaty instrument on which the act of approval was based, the resulting legal acts would not be binding within the German sphere of sovereignty”. The Courts themselves claim such a power: “the Federal Constitutional Court reviews whether acts of European bodies and organs remain within the limits of the sovereign powers transferred to them or whether they exceed such limits”.
So the seeds of the current ultra vires declaration were already planted in the Maastricht Urteil construction, further developed in the Lissabon Urteil, where the BVerfG identified the core areas of State sovereignty in which intervention of the EU would have been considered ultra vires.
The PSSP decision does not depart from the idea that the Member States remain the Master of the Treaties and that the EU is a “union based on the multilevel cooperation of sovereign states” which retain the right to declare void an act of the EU institutions if the latter exceed their conferred competences. Differently from the previous jurisprudence, in the PSPP case, the nullification option which seemed to be – to use a metaphor of the US debate – a zombie constitutional concept, has been exercised, with heavy consequences on the EU legal order.
3.Judicial Neo-nullification?
In order to better understand what this decision represents for the EU, it must be read not only retrospectively but is has to be put in the present moment of the EU integration: a context characterised by a growing narrative challenging the EU authority, as an illegitimate constraint over the expression of national sovereignty and identity. These tensions, which to a certain extent can be considered inherent in the nature of the multitier system, need to be analysed in a broader trend of a reemergence of constitutional dissent and conflict between local, national and global actors. As Hirschl argues “when understood against the backdrop of formidable centripetal forces of political, cultural, and economic globalization, the rise of a new trans-national constitutional order and judicial class and the corresponding decrease in the autonomy of ‘Westphalian’ constitutionalism, as well as an ever-increasing deficit of democratic legitimacy, counter pressures for preserving a given sub-national unit’s, region’s, or community’s unique constitutional legacy, cultural-linguistic heritage, and political voice seem destined to intensify, not decline”.
In this context the BVerfG decision may be a counter-reaction to the marginalisation of the national and local dimension in the name of the centripetal forces of a supranational authority.
The constitutional concept of nullification, rather than a relic of the past, is emerging now as a powerful – though dangerous – instrument to give voice to new claims and new resistances, in a federal and supranational context. However, we are facing a new type of nullification: while nullification in the US theory is meant to be exercised by States’ legislatures, today the agents of nullification are mainly apex courts. Indeed, as we saw earlier, the Kentucky resolution was given before Marbury v. Madison and even later Calhoun mainly looked at political bodies as the actors in charge of this.
This is not surprising, however, given the rise of the judiciary in the new-constitutional paradigm.
On this basis, even before this decision, scholars had already warned about the “bad example” offered by the German judges, especially after which, in 2012, the Czech Constitutional Court (Pl. ÚS 5/12) declared the CJEU’s judgment in C-399/09 Landtová “ultra vires”. The Czech case represented the first example of the application of the ultra vires doctrine.
After that, the Danish Supreme Court in Ajos also took the chance to delimit the competences of the EU. However, now it is different because of the prestige and charisma of the BVerfG and indeed the risk of a domino effect is now very high.
Conflicts like these have also been occurring in proper federal systems. The EU is dealing – more than other multilevel legal experiences – with this ultimate and deep tension. However, differently from other contexts the EU legal system may find a way out of this conflict on the last word. Now that the nullification option of the BVerfG has become a reality, this will pave the way for a broader reflection on the several current resistances that the EU is facing, urging us to look beyond the earthquake surface effects, in order to identify its epicentre and its deeper causes.
15 Maggio 2020
Due dottrine dei diritti?
Su sollecitazione dell’amico Andrea Buratti colgo, dopo qualche reticenza, l’invito a dare seguito al suo bel post, che ha il merito di insistere sulle problematicità dell’attuale fase, fra tutte la mancanza di centralità parlamentare (specie nelle prime settimane della crisi), una certa dose di paternalismo e l’evidente limitazione di alcune libertà fondamentali. Il tutto, per altro, combinato con una gestione mediatica dell’emergenza che si conferma a tratti populista.
Il post di Buratti ripristina, per così dire, il “tono costituzionale” dei richiami della Presidente della Corte costituzionale Marta Cartabia, che nello scadimento del dibattito politico attuale, si è pensato di ridurre al livello di polemiche interistituzionali. Da ultimo, si tratta di un invito alla riflessione e a un dibattito di teoria costituzionale. Il mio intervento è sulle sfumature, niente di più e niente di meno.
Tuttavia, l’obiettivo del post è quello di riflettere, accademicamente più che politicamente, sulla tenuta della contrapposizione proposta da Andrea nel suo intervento, offrendo spunti di riflessione soprattutto teorica.
Notazione generale: procedere per dicotomie può essere rischioso, perché si finisce per leggere in maniera antitetica interventi che presentano anche punti di contatto. Inoltre, mi pare eccessivo scorgere contrapposizioni tenendo conto che uno dei due interventi fa del costante richiamo alla leale collaborazione – non solo fra Stato e Regioni – uno dei pilastri del messaggio proposto.
Tuttavia, ciò che mi lascia più perplesso è il voler scorgere negli interventi di Marta Cartabia e Giuseppe Conte due dottrine dei diritti diverse - una che invoca il bilanciamento tra principi e l’altra che in ultima analisi lo esclude -, mettendo sullo stesso piano due figure (istituzionali ed accademiche) profondamente diverse.
Detto ancora meglio, risponde sicuramente a una chiara teoria dei diritti l’intervento della Presidente Cartabia, ed è sapiente il rimando effettuato da Buratti alla giurisprudenza costituzionale sul caso ILVA e in particolare quello al felice passaggio sull’inesistenza di una tirannia dei diritti. Ho qualche dubbio però sulla possibilità di scorgere un’alternativa teorica nel pensiero del Presidente del Consiglio (e lo scrivo senza ironia) con il suo costante riferimento al principio di precauzione e il richiamo al concetto delle “scelte tragiche”.
A prima vista queste due posizioni potrebbero ricordare la distinzione fatta da Vermeule fra “precautionary constitutionalism” (richiamato da Buratti nel post) e “optimizing constitutionalism”.
Mentre per il primo “constitutional rulemakers and citizens design and manage political institutions with a view to warding off the worst case”, il secondo “trades off all relevant political risks, giving them their due weight in the circumstances, without any systematic skew or bias against any particular type of political risk”. Se il c.d. “optimizing constitutionalism” fa della flessibilità il suo punto forte, puntando sul bilanciamento caso per caso, il “precautionary constitutionalism” implica l’esistenza di una gerarchia di diritti e, quindi, conosce eccezioni al bilanciamento stesso. Partiamo dalle premesse seguite nella gestione dell’emergenza: per quanto problematica, non mi pare che la serie di provvedimenti adottati abbia prodotto una rottura della catena di validità o una rivoluzione in senso tecnico. La speranza è ovviamente che ciò non accada e bisogna rimanere vigili, ma l’operato del governo (con tutte le debolezze e ambiguità riportate in apertura) è in effetti avvenuto, questo sì, tenendo in considerazione il “worst case scenario”, in una situazione di incertezza evidente e nel tentativo di preservare la salute di tutti, inclusi i più vulnerabili. Questo mi pare pacifico, a meno di non volere contestare la narrazione dell’emergenza e cadere in complottismi.
Tuttavia, a ben vedere, fra bilanciamento e precauzione non vi è necessariamente opposizione, visto che in entrambi i casi un ruolo essenziale può essere giocato dal concetto di proporzionalità, come gli studi sul diritto ambientale dimostrano. Inoltre, a mio avviso sarebbe errato fare di questa distinzione una dicotomia in senso proprio: come ha ricordato Stone, infatti, essa acquisisce significato solo dando per scontata la definizione delle costituzioni come “strumenti di gestione dei rischi politici”. Inoltre, si tratta di una distinzione innestata nella particolare idea statunitense del diritto pubblico, in altre parole ha valenza euristica solo accettando l’idea di Vermeule che così spiegava la sua definizione di costituzione come:
Questa distinzione di compiti fra diritto amministrativo e diritto costituzionale a me pare molto americana (si pensi al dibattito, bellissimo per altro, sulla “Dubious Morality of Modern Administrative Law”), e inevitabilmente presenta forti limiti di esportabilità, anche se nella stessa opera, poco dopo, lo stesso Vermeule si affrettava a ricordare che “some constitutions have inscribed principles of health and safety regulation in the fundamental laws of their polities”, citando l’esempio francese. La stessa idea di gestione del rischio non è comune nel linguaggio delle costituzioni (le eccezioni sono forse la Costituzione brasiliana e, da noi, l’Art. 7 TUE, volendo considerare i Trattati europei come documenti costituzionali), che tutt’al più, parlano a volte di emergenza (declinata, come nel caso spagnolo all’Art. 116 della Costituzione, in “Estado de alarma, “Estado de excepción” e “Estado de sitio”).
Un’altra ragione che mi fa dubitare dell’esistenza di due dottrine antitetiche dei diritti riguarda il richiamo effettuato dal Presidente del Consiglio a Calabresi (e Bobbitt). La scelta tragica può essere vista come eccezione al bilanciamento? Sicuramente sì per alcune scelte tragiche, quelle in cui non è possibile minimizzare la tragedia (si veda la terza parte di quel volume volume). Detto in altro modo, questo vale per quei tipi di tragedie costituzionali prese in considerazione dai critici del bilanciamento à la Zucca, secondo cui dietro il bilanciamento si cela talvolta una scelta solo apparentemente tecnica e procedurale. Del resto, non tutti i cultori delle scelte tragiche le ipotizzano partendo da gerarchie costituzionali prestabilite e, soprattutto, non tutte le scelte tragiche di cui scrivevano Calabresi e Bobbitt possono essere considerate veri e propri dilemmi costituzionali. Questo meriterebbe un ulteriore approfondimento, ma in effetti nell’idea di scelta tragica un ruolo essenziale è giocato dalla “scarsità di risorse” come ricordano Calabresi e Bobbitt in apertura, mentre per Zucca “genuine conflicts of fundamental rights exist despite scarce resources, or other external elements”.
Del resto, mi pare che nel costituzionalismo europeo raramente si ragioni di gerarchie, con (forse) l’eccezione tedesca della c.d. “democrazia militante”. In questo il mondo delle scelte tragiche si apre a una varietà di posizioni. La stessa idea di “constitutional dilemma” di Zucca non implica necessariamente un equilibrio prestabilito nella scelta tragica, o detto nel suo linguaggio, nella “fundamental loss”;
Tuttavia, siamo sicuri che il Presidente del Consiglio si riferisse a delle eccezioni al bilanciamento o addirittura a situazioni di vera e propria eccezione?
Come viene riconosciuto anche da Buratti, non vi è bisogno di essere schmittiani per ammettere che possano esistere eccezioni al bilanciamento, basti guardare alla giurisprudenza della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo e all’Art. 15 della stessa Convenzione europea, con la distinzione fra diritti assoluti e relativi, o a quella della Corte di giustizia dell’Unione europea in casi come Schmidberger.
Perché si insiste su questo? Perché credo che un altro elemento di confusione nell’attuale dibattito consista nel rapporto fra eccezione ed emergenza, come ricordava qualche settimana fa l’ex Presidente della Corte costituzionale Silvestri:
Ecco che allora si torna a quanto sostenuto dalla Presidente Cartabia, secondo cui, pur nell’assenza di una clausola costituzionale sull’emergenza, “la Costituzione (…) non è insensibile al variare delle contingenze, all’eventualità che dirompano situazioni di emergenza, di crisi, o di straordinaria necessità e urgenza”. La nostra Costituzione si può adattare a situazioni come questa garantendo “necessità, proporzionalità, bilanciamento, giustiziabilità e temporaneità”. A ben vedere, però, anche il Presidente del Consiglio Conte ha fatto più volte riferimento al principio di proporzionalità nei suoi interventi delle settimane precedenti e nello stesso testo dei suoi discorsi alla Camera e al Senato. Inoltre, nello stesso passaggio in cui si menzionavano le scelte tragiche si faceva riferimento anche al “bilanciamento”, ribadendo, in ultima analisi, un concetto, per esempio, presente nell’Art. 41 della nostra Costituzione, secondo cui l’attività economica privata non può svolgersi “in contrasto con l’utilità sociale o in modo da recare danno alla sicurezza, alla libertà, alla dignità umana”.
Insomma, non mi pare che la posizione del Presidente del Consiglio sia da ergersi a controcanto teorico, a meno di non voler costruire una dicotomia artificiale, leggendo in maniera manichea due interventi diversi per contesto, occasione e interlocutori, perdendo, così, il piacere delle sfumature.
4 Maggio 2020
Ricordo del Prof. Paolo Carrozza
Il Prof. Paolo Carrozza si è spento dopo una lunga malattia. Era Professore ordinario di diritto costituzionale alla Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna di Pisa, studioso eclettico, avvocato cassazionista e co-curatore di uno dei manuali di diritto costituzionale comparato più diffusi in Italia. In precedenza, aveva lavorato in vari atenei italiani (Università di Firenze, Università di Sassari, Università di Pisa) ed era stato anche vicesindaco di Pisa dal 1994 al 1998. Fino alla sua scomparsa aveva fatto parte della Commissione paritetica per la Regione Valle d'Aosta.
I suoi meriti accademici sono enormi, ma poche volte come in questa è difficile distinguere fra l’uomo e lo studioso. Non per caso, molti dei concetti da lui sviluppati ben si prestano a descriverne il carattere: integrazione, dialogo, apertura, tolleranza sono parole che danno l’idea della grande umanità del Prof. Carrozza.
Uomo di immensa cultura, aveva un approccio olistico al diritto che concepiva innanzitutto come fenomeno sociale, da qui le “epiche” chiacchierate che spaziavano dalle scienze giuridiche all’economia, dalla storia alla scienza politica, fino alla narrativa, al cinema, al calcio. Quando non si sapeva come “fare i conti” con la tesi (di laurea o di dottorato), quando non si riusciva ad iniziare un articolo o a finire un capitolo, lui sapeva sempre consigliare una lettura o fornire dei contro-argomenti che avrebbero rafforzato (o demolito) la tesi di partenza dell’interlocutore. A volte scontava il prezzo della sua gentilezza e lo si vedeva spesso in giro per Pisa mentre, camminando trafelato, dispensava intere bibliografie a chi lo accompagnava nel tragitto verso il suo prossimo appuntamento. Le sue giornate erano pienissime, ma non negava mai un sorriso a chi lo cercava.
Uomo libero, a sua volta non voleva mai condizionare l’esito del percorso di ricerca di chi gli chiedeva qualche suggerimento, ma giustamente vedeva nei “classici” un punto di partenza necessario. Era molto esigente in questo. Fra gli autori immancabili vi erano Smend, Kelsen (su cui si era cimentato da poco in uno degli ultimi lavori), Santi Romano, Mirkine-Guetzévitch, Friedrich, Cappelletti insieme, ovviamente, al suo Maestro: Alessandro Pizzorusso. La sua risata e la sua cultura erano terapeutiche, perché passava la paura del vuoto e l’angoscia del blocco nella scrittura. Quelli che sembravano baratri insuperabili venivano aggirati dopo una chiacchierata con lui. I suoi allievi non lo dimenticheranno mai.
Quando gli parlammo della nostra Rivista, chiedendogli di entrare a far parte del comitato scientifico, Paolo Carrozza accettò immediatamente con il solito entusiasmo e la sua immancabile risata. Una risata contagiosa, capace di squarciare gli spazi, di attraversare i corridoi della Scuola Sant’Anna, preannunciando, così, l’allegria e la ricchezza di un incontro non pianificato.
Ci stringiamo attorno alla famiglia del Prof. Carrozza con sincero affetto.
13 Settembre 2019